By Fred D. Wright, Aaron T. Beck, Cory F. Newman, and Bruce S. Liese
“The practical effect of a belief is the real test of its soundness.” James A. Froude
INTRODUCTION
Millions of Americans have substance abuse problems. In fact, at least 1 in 10 adult Americans has a serious alcohol problem (Institute of Medicine 1987). At least one in four adult Americans is addicted to nicotine (Centers for Disease Control 1991a ). Approximately 1 in 35 Americans over the age of 12 is an illicit drug user (Institute of Medicine 1990a).
Substance abuse results in profound social, medical, and psychological problems. For example, it has been estimated that approximately 434,000 people in this country die each year as a result of cigarette smoking (Centers for Disease Control 1991b). Many thousands also die as a result of alcoholism (Institute of Medicine 1987, 1990b) and illicit drug abuse (Institute of Medicine 1990a ).
There are many different ways of conceptualizing substance abuse (Beck et al. 1993; Blane and Leonard 1987; Brickman et al. 1982; Cox 1990). Although the disease model and 12-step programs continue to dominate the treatment literature and practice, several authors have developed social learning, or cognitive-behavioral, approaches for understanding and treating substance abuse disorders (e.g., Abrams and Niaura 1987; Annis 1986; Marlatt 1978, 1982, 1985; Marlatt and Gordon 1980, 1985).
In fact, efforts even have included rational emotive approaches to treating substance abuse (e.g., Ellis et al. 1988; Trimpey 1989).
This chapter presents the theoretical rationale for the cognitive therapy of substance abuse based on work at the Center for Cognitive Therapy, University of Pennsylvania. The Cognitive Therapy Model Cognitive therapy is an active, collaborative, focused form of psychotherapy developed from the findings that psychological disturbances frequently involve habitual errors in thinking (Beck 1976; Beck et al. 1979).
The underlying theoretical rationale stipulates that the way an individual feels and behaves is largely determined by the way he or she construes his or her experiences. Further, the model stipulates that psychological disorders are characterized by dysfunctional thinking derived from dysfunctional beliefs.
Initial improvement results from modification of the dysfunctional thinking and durable improvement from modification of dysfunctional beliefs. The cognitive model of substance abuse asserts that certain individuals have developed a cognitive vulnerability to drug abuse.
Under particular circumstances, specific beliefs are activated that increase the likelihood of substance use (Beck et al. 1990a, 1992). Idiosyncratic beliefs such as, “I cannot socialize without getting high,” are activated in certain provocative situations, leading to increased risk of succumbing to drug use.
Definition of Beliefs
Beliefs are relatively stable, enduring cognitive processes that, once formed, are not easily modified by experience. Depressed patients tend to have global negative views about themselves, the world, and the future, which contributes to their feelings of despair, guilt, and sadness (Beck et al. 1979).
Similarly, anxious patients have specific negative beliefs about some future threat, which contributes to avoidance, anxiety, and, at times, panic attacks (Beck and Emery 1985).
Without cognitive intervention, these pernicious beliefs tend to endure in spite of objective evidence that there is hope or that the perceived threat is minimal.
There are three major categories of dysfunctional beliefs associated with the patient’s acute decision to engage in substance abuse: 1. Anticipatory, 2. Relief-oriented, and 3. Facilitative or permissive.
Anticipatory beliefs usually involve some expectation of drug use, such as, “I feel like a superman when I use.”
Relief-oriented beliefs are those that assume that using drugs will remove some uncomfortable state: “The urges and cravings will not go away unless I use.”
Facilitative or permissive beliefs are those that consider drug use acceptable even in spite of obvious potential consequences: “I deserve it. I am a hard worker. There is nothing wrong with taking risks.”
The cognitive therapy model of substance abuse states that drug-using beliefs and desires typically are activated in specific, common, often predictable, high-risk circumstances.
These circumstances can be external or internal. Examples of external circumstances are seeing drug paraphernalia or being at a party where cocaine or other drugs are being used. Internal circumstances include uncomfortable emotional states such as depression, anxiety, or boredom.
Numerous circumstances can trigger drug-related beliefs and, consequently, drug use. It should be noted that the circumstances previously mentioned do not directly cause drug use, though they may seem to give rise to spontaneous use.
The authors have observed a sequence of events that occurs between the external/internal circumstances and the actual drug use. The sequence of conditions is as follows (see figure 1): the high-risk external/internal circumstance is followed by the activation of a basic drug-related belief, which in turn leads to associated automatic thoughts and further to craving/urges.
This in turn leads to the activation of facilitating beliefs about drug use, which directs attention to instrumental strategies for obtaining the drugs, which in turn leads to use.
At this point, drug use can serve as an additional external/intemal circumstance that triggers other drug-related beliefs (e.g., “Since I have broken my abstinence, I might as well go on a binge”), resulting in a vicious cycle (Beck et al. 1990a, 1992).
This series of conditions is illustrated in the following case. Mr. C. is a 34-year-old drug abuser who completed a 28-day residential treatment program.
The following is an example of his first lapse. The situation occurred when Mr. C. went to a bar (external) in order to socialize because he felt extremely bored (internal). This, in turn, activated a common drug-related (relief-oriented) belief: “I cannot stand the boredom.” In turn, this condition led to the associated automatic thought, “Go for it.”
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FIGURE 1. Cognitive model of substance abuse [see source article]
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Instantly, extremely strong cravings started, as he began to have images of the last time that he used. This, in turn, activated another belief, “Urges and cravings make me use,” and the facilitating belief, “Everybody in this town uses, so why not me?”
His instrumental strategy was to look around for someone in the bar who might have some cocaine. Like a heat-seeking missile, all of his attention was focused on hitting the target-getting cocaine. He found some cocaine, used, and later felt guilty and hopeless, which started the vicious cycle anew.
Case Conceptualization
There are four main components to the cognitive conceptualization of the substance abuser: 1. Relevant childhood data, 2. Dysfunctional core beliefs, 3. Conditional assumptions, and 4. Compensatory strategies.
With regard to relevant childhood data, therapists try to ascertain the early childhood experiences that contributed to the development and maintenance of general dysfunctional core beliefs. These core beliefs are the most central beliefs about how patients view themselves, generally falling into two categories: believing that one is unlovable or incapable.
Conditional assumptions are implicit rules that patients attempt to follow in order to thrive or avoid harm. They can be in the form of a positive assumption, such as “If I gain control, then I will feel effective,” or a negative counterpart: “If I do not do things perfectly, then I am inferior.”
Compensatory strategies are those behaviors that help patients to cope (albeit temporarily and ineffectively) with the core belief (e.g., avoiding tasks that they feel they cannot do perfectly or using drugs that make them feel effective and confident).
The case of Mr. C. illustrates these concepts. Mr. C. grew up in a very unpredictable family. His father was a heavy drinker who often acted impulsively and was emotionally abusive. He often would humiliate Mr. C. in public, making comments about how stupid he was and jokingly saying his son was adopted.
The two core beliefs that the authors hypothesize developed as a result of these early childhood experiences were, “I am inadequate and powerless” and, “I am unwanted and undesirable.”
Mr. C. developed a series of conditional assumptions that stemmed from these core beliefs, including: “If I am in control, then I will feel adequate.” “If I do things perfectly, then people will like me.” “If people show their emotions, then they are out of control, and they will be rejected by others.”
In order to cope with his core beliefs, Mr. C. developed certain compensatory strategies, one being to avoid showing others how he really felt. That is, if he realized that he was going into a situation in which he might become extremely anxious, his tendency was to avoid the situation.
He also developed an all-or-none style of handling tasks. If he could not do what he considered perfect work, he tended to procrastinate or avoid it altogether. Another compensatory strategy was to drink and use cocaine. When using cocaine and alcohol, Mr. C. tended to feel more powerful and more popular with others. He felt more in control when using and believed that everything was going perfectly and that people would like him.
Modifying Beliefs in Therapy
An important goal of cognitive therapy of substance abuse is to identify and modify drug-related dysfunctional beliefs, replacing them with more adaptive, functional beliefs. At the very least, the therapist attempts to teach the patient to build functional beliefs that become more salient than the drug-related beliefs.
The ideal result is that the patient will abstain from drug use. In order to modify drug-related beliefs, the cognitive therapist must have an accurate understanding of the role of such beliefs in the patient’s life.
Thus, a careful assessment of beliefs must be undertaken for each patient. In the assessment, the therapist collects data about the patient’s beliefs using two vehicles: therapist-patient interactions during psychotherapy sessions and belief questionnaires.
During the therapy session, some basic tasks are important for the therapist to collect raw data and maintain a collaborative relationship with the patient. The most important of these tasks is the therapist’s use of open-ended questions and probing. This strategy facilitates an examination of the structure and content of the patient’s beliefs.
Some examples of open-ended questions are the following: “What are your thoughts about that?” “How do you explain your reactions?” “How do you interpret what happened?” “What does that mean to you?”
As the patient responds to these questions, the therapist reflects what the patient has said, with particular emphasis on beliefs expressed by the patient. At various points in the interview, the therapist provides a summary of what has been discussed, again with strong emphasis placed on the patient’s beliefs.
This technique is illustrated in the following example. Mr. C. reported that during the week he was feeling extremely angry and anxious. The therapist then asked him to describe the specific situation. He reported that while at a party he saw other people using cocaine, and he started having urges to use again.
The therapist then asked, “What thoughts were going through your mind then?” Mr. C. recalled, “They can use and I cannot. I will never be able to use again.” The therapist said, “Let us assume for the moment that these thoughts are accurate. What about them is important? What is the meaning to you?”
Mr. C. replied, “It means that I will always be this way” (angry and anxious). The therapist once again asked, “And what is the meaning of that to you? How does that impact on you?” Mr. C. replied, “I will always have these urges and feel anxious.”
The therapist asked, “And how does that impact on you?” Mr. C. replied, “It makes me feel helpless.” Two important beliefs were uncovered in this brief interchange: “I will always have these urges and feel anxious,” and, “I feel helpless about this.”
In addition to the interview process, several questionnaires are available to collect data about an individual’s beliefs. Some are designated to evaluate more general beliefs, such as the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (Weissman and Beck 1978), while others are designed specifically to assess drug-related beliefs.
This chapter will focus on those scales that are used specifically to assess the drug-related beliefs. The following are scales that can be used in making this assessment: the Beliefs About Substance Use (figure 2), the Craving Belief
Listed below are some common beliefs about drug use. Please read each statement and rate how much you agree or disagree with each one. 1. Life without using is boring. 2. Using is the only way to increase my creativity and productivity. 3. I cannot function without it. 4. This is the only way to cope with pain in my life. 5. I am not ready to stop using.
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FIGURE 2. Beliefs about substance abuse: Sample of Items Questionnaire-CQ (figure 3), and the Relapse Prediction Scale (figure 4).
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These instruments are given to the patient at the beginning of therapy to provide baseline information. They also are completed at subsequent visits to assess changes that may occur as therapy progresses. During the therapy process, these questionnaires help therapists to understand the patient’s beliefs as they relate to target areas for intervention.
For example, during his initial visit, Mr. C. endorsed strongly the following statements on the Beliefs About Substance Use Questionnaire: “Life without using is boring.” “My life will not get any better even if I stop using.” “The urges and cravings will not go away unless I use drugs.”
These responses give the therapist important information regarding target areas for intervention. They allow the therapist to quickly conceptualize some of the patient’s problems and to target certain beliefs that will need to be modified. On the Craving Belief Questionnaire, Mr. C. endorsed the following statements: “Since I will have cravings the rest of my life, I might as well go ahead and use cocaine.” “If the craving gets too intense, cocaine is the only way to cope with the feelings.” “The craving makes me use cocaine.”
Early in therapy, the therapist has been able to identify important drugrelated beliefs that are maintaining the patient’s drug use or making the patient vulnerable to a lapse or relapse.
On the Relapse Prediction Scale, Mr. C. endorsed items that clearly identify certain high-risk circumstances for him. For example, he stated that the likelihood of using again would be strong in the following circumstances: “I am having a drink.” “I am around people with whom I previously used cocaine and crack.” “I feel bored.”
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FIGURE 3. Craving Belief Questionnaire (CQ): Sample of Ideas
1. The craving is totally out of my control. 2. The craving is a physical reaction, therefore, I cannot do anything about it. 3. If I do not stop the cravings they will get worse. 4. Craving can drive you crazy. 5. The craving makes me use cocaine.
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FIGURE 4. Relapse Prediction Scale: Sample of Items
As you know, there are many situations that can trigger an urge to use cocaine or crack. This scale has two parts: (1) to determine how strong you think the urges will be in certain situations and (2) what is the likelihood of your using in these situations.
1. I am in a place where I used cocaine or crack before. 2. Around people with whom I have previously used cocaine or crack. 3. I just got paid. 4. I see co-workers using. 5. I am leaving work.
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As can be seen from this list of situations, the Relapse Prediction Scale allows the therapist to target certain vulnerable circumstances very quickly. This information allows the therapist to suggest prompt coping interventions early in treatment to reduce the likelihood of a lapse or relapse.
Orienting the Drug-Abusing Patient to the Cognitive Therapy Model
Most drug abusers have an external view of their problem. They may believe, for example, that, “Under my current circumstance, I have no control whatsoever,” or, “I just need to submit myself to the doctors and they will cure me.”
Thus, it is important that patients be oriented to the cognitive therapy model in the initial stages of therapy. Orienting the patients involves modifying their beliefs about control from an externalized orientation (e.g., “Control is beyond me”) to a more internalized control orientation such as, “I can expect some control over myself and my drug use.”
As part of the process of orienting the patient, key terms are defined, including drug-related beliefs, adaptive beliefs, automatic thoughts, external/internal circumstances, lapse, and relapse. The interrelationship between these phenomena is explained with emphasis on the role of beliefs in drug use.
The actual process of orienting the patient to the cognitive therapy model varies from person to person depending on each individual’s aptitude for self-examination.
For example, a psychologically minded individual might easily accept the idea that thoughts and feelings are important and worthy of examination. With such an individual, it might be relatively easy to explain the cognitive therapy model using diagrams, drawings, and analogies.
On the other hand, some patients will be more concrete in their cognitive style, requiring repeated use of simple examples. Regardless of the process used, the primary goal of orienting the patient to the cognitive therapy model is to begin modifying dysfunctional beliefs, with particular importance being placed on dysfunctional drug-related beliefs. An essential part of this orientation involves helping the patient to understand how beliefs can develop and change over time.
The development of various types of beliefs is illustrated in the following case.
Mr. C. had the initial belief that he could not become addicted to cocaine. He felt that he had complete control and that he could be a recreational user. Initially, he used cocaine only in social situations.
Later, he developed a belief that he could work better using cocaine and that the drug gave him more energy and made him more creative. This, in turn, led to the use of cocaine prior to going to work and especially when he was under pressure to meet deadlines. It is interesting to note that Mr. C. had the illusion that he was more productive at work when using cocaine, when, in fact, the objective data indicated that he became less productive because of missed days from work following weekend binges.
Later, when he tried to stop using and he began to experience stronger urges and cravings, Mr. C.'s beliefs became focused on the cravings themselves. Some of these beliefs were: “I cannot stand the cravings.” “The feelings will not go away.” “The cravings make me use.”
Later, when his life appeared to be falling apart, he was in debt, and his wife was considering leaving him, he developed the belief that his problems would still be just as awful even if he stopped using cocaine. As shown in the above illustration, Mr. C. had a series of beliefs that developed over time that lead to his feeling hopeless about his situation and facilitated his increased use of cocaine.
Examining and Testing Beliefs
Generally, beliefs develop over an extended period of time. As a result, they become overlearned and extremely resistant to change (Beck et al. 1990b; Young 1990).
The drug abuser collects data supporting beliefs such as “Drugs are fun and very exciting,” “Cocaine greatly enhances sex and many other activities,” “Nothing is quite like using cocaine,” and so forth.
Many substance abusers have spent years rejecting more functional beliefs such as “Drugs are harmful.” Though many patients have tried to quit using drugs, their difficulty in doing so provides them with apparent validation for beliefs such as “I am not in control of my problem” or “I am helpless.”
Given the resistant nature of drug-related beliefs, the process of modifying them requires much diligent therapeutic work. After the therapist has assessed the patient’s beliefs and oriented the patient to the cognitive therapy model, an examination and testing of beliefs should begin.
Examining drug-related beliefs involves asking patients probing questions that lead to closer scrutiny of these beliefs. This process is known as the Socratic method, or guided discovery. The following are some examples of questions appropriate for this process: “What is your evidence for that belief?” “How do you know the belief is true?” “Where did you learn that?” “How strongly do you believe that?” “How likely is it that your belief is true?”
The primary goal of Socratic questioning is to heighten the patient’s awareness of his or her functioning. As the patient considers the therapist’s questions, drug-related beliefs should begin to “loosen;” that is, he or she should begin to understand that these beliefs are biased and there is a possibility that they are incorrect and self-defeating.
Mr. C. had developed the belief that urges and cravings made him use. However, through questioning, the therapist was able to help him examine this belief. One of the key questions in helping Mr. C. to modify this belief was, “What is the evidence against the idea that cravings make you use?”
Upon reflection, Mr. C. realized that he did not always use when he had urges and cravings. Nevertheless, he had the illusion that every time he had an urge he gave into it.
The therapist instructed the patient to list recollections of times when he had had strong urges and cravings to use cocaine but in fact did not use. Reviewing this evidence helped to undermine Mr. C.'s very strong belief that the urges and cravings made him use.
Development of Adaptive Beliefs
The therapist’s use of the Socratic method stimulates patients to examine their drug-related beliefs, to modify them, and ultimately to replace them with more adaptive beliefs. For example, Mr. C. had the belief that “There is only one way for me to have fun–to use drugs.”
First, the therapist asked him to list those activities that he enjoyed before getting hooked on drugs. Mr. C. listed playing tennis, biking, and going out to dinner with his wife, among others.
The therapist then asked Mr. C., “On a scale of 1 to 10, how much pleasure would you get out of playing tennis now?” He replied, “Probably a 2.” The therapist then asked Mr. C., “For homework, would you go play a game of tennis and then rate on a 1-to-10 scale how much you enjoyed it?”
He agreed to do it. At the next therapy session, Mr. C. reported that he did the homework and, to his surprise, he actually scored a 9, which would indicate that he had had a good time. This experiment helped to chip away at Mr. C.'s belief that “There is only one way for me to have fun–to use drugs.”
Mr. C. experimented with other pleasurable activities, and eventually the aforementioned dysfunctional belief became very weak. A new belief began to emerge: “Besides doing drugs, there are many different things that I enjoy.”
Another strategy for examining and testing drug-related beliefs and developing adaptive beliefs is the use of the daily thought record (DTR). The DTR is a structured form for listing and modifying distorted thoughts.
Specifically, the DTR has four columns containing the following categories: situation, emotion(s), automatic thought(s), and rational response. An example of a completed DTR appears in figure 5. For example, when patients experience urges or cravings, they write in the situation column the triggering event. In the next column, they list the feeling they are having.
The automatic thoughts section is where they write spontaneous negative thoughts and images associated with how they are feeling. Alternative adaptive responses are written in the rational response section. This is illustrated by Mr. C.'s DTR (see figure 5).
Under the column entitled “situation,” Mr. C. described how he was sitting at home, he recently had had an accident, his hand was broken, and he had plenty of money in his pocket. Under “emotions” he wrote, “Bored.” Under the “automatic thoughts” column, he had listed the following: “There is nothing to do,” “I cannot stand the boredom,” “Therapy is not doing me any good.” and “I need a hit to cool down.”
The therapist taught Mr. C. to examine these automatic thoughts by asking himself the following questions: “What is the evidence for and against my automatic thoughts?” “What are some other ways to look at this situation?” “What are the realistic consequences?” “What are the disadvantages of my continuing to say this to myself?” “What constructive action can I take?”
Mr. C. began by examining the thought “There is nothing to do” by asking himself, “What is the evidence that there is nothing to do?”
He responded by saying, “There is no evidence that there is nothing to do. Actually, there are plenty of things I can do; for example, I can go to an Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) meeting or just get out of the house and take a walk.”
Next he asked himself, “Is there another way of looking at this? Do I really mean that there is nothing to do?” His response to this was, “No, it is not true that there is nothing to do, but experiencing pain and boredom makes it difficult for me to see other things that I might be able to do.” He then asked himseIf, “What are the realistic consequences if it is true that there is nothing to do?”
He responded, “Well, if it is true that there is nothing to do, then the consequences are that I feel bored and, although I do not like being bored, it is not the end of the world. The consequences are that I will feel bored, but eventually it will go away.”
Mr. C.'s fourth question was, “What are the disadvantages of my continuing to say this to myself?” He responded, “The disadvantage is that I will feel helpless, which in turn will lead to the desire for cocaine.”
By examining these thoughts, he was able to produce adaptive rational responses, such as “I have tolerated boredom in the past in the same way that I have tolerated other feelings. There are plenty of things to do, such as going to an AA meeting.”
These responses represented Mr. C.'s early development of new, more adaptive beliefs. The final question (“What constructive action can I take?”) led Mr. C. to consider what he could do to feel better without resorting to drugs. He decided that he would begin to make a schedule for himself in preparation for a return to work following the healing of his hand. This activity made Mr. C. focus on his abilities and goals, not his helplessness, and his concomitant drug urges diminished.
Later, the therapist was able to help Mr. C. examine the remaining automatic thoughts and to come up with adaptive responses to those as well. Another strategy for developing adaptive beliefs is the advantage/disadvantage analysis. People use drugs partly because they view the advantages of doing so as outweighing the disadvantages.
Thus, the purpose of the advantage/disadvantage analysis is to direct the patient’s attention to the disadvantages of using cocaine and the advantages of abstaining.
The patient is taught to construct a 2x2 matrix where the advantages and disadvantages of using and not using are listed and explored (figure 6). Mr. C. listed the following advantages for using cocaine: “I feel like a superman.” “It takes away my shyness and insecurity.” “I feel like king of the mountain.”
Under the disadvantages for using cocaine, he listed the following: “I feel paranoid.” “I have a terrible relationship with my wife.” “I feel physically bad.” Similar work was done to generate lists of advantages and disadvantages for not using. The result was that Mr. C. learned that there were compelling reasons to remain abstinent and that his reasons for using were based on falsehoods, rationalizations, and a preoccupation with an immediate sense of power.
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FIGURE 6. Advantage/disadvantage analysis
Advantages for Using:
1. “I feel like a superman.”
2. “I takes away my shyness and insecurity.”
3. “I fell like king of the mountain.”
Disadvantages for Using:
1. “I feel paranoid.”
2. “I have a terrible relationship with my wife.”
3. “I feel physically bad.”
Advantages for Not Using:
1. “I save money.”
2. “I do not have to lie to my family.”
3. “I will feel physically great.”
Disadvantages for Not Using:
1. “I will be lonely.”
2. “I will not do as well sexually.”
3. “I will lose friends.”
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Practice In Activating Adaptive Beliefs
Upon completion of some of the above exercises, such as the DTR and the advantage/disadvantage analysis, the patient is much more attentive to the disadvantages of using drugs. Furthermore, the patient is better able to successfully develop beliefs for resisting future drug use.
However, the patient frequently has trouble accessing these beliefs when faced with the temptation. Hence, special attention must be paid to the deliberate activation of adaptive beliefs as part of therapy. There are several methods which serve this purpose. One method involves the use of flashcards.
After the patient has formulated an adaptive belief, flashcards can be used to reinforce and activate the newly developed belief. For example, upon completing the advantage/disadvantage analysis, the patient writes the advantages for not using on one or more 3"x5" index cards.
In the case of Mr. C., he wrote, “I feel more secure and less paranoid when I do not use. I get along much better with my wife when I do not use. I feel physically great in the long run when I do not use.”
He then read and repeated this card whenever he felt an urge to use, which focused his attention on the importance of abstinence. Homework Homework involves applying the skills learned in the therapy session to everyday life. Thus, homework is a vital extension of therapy (Persons et al. 1988; Primakoff et al. 1986).
As a result of repeated use of homework in cognitive therapy, patients learn to use probing questions spontaneously in their lives, such as “What evidence do I have for this belief?” or “How else can I look at the situation?” or “What are the consequences of my beliefs?”
Homework is an opportunity to practice applying adaptive beliefs in the real world (Newman and Haaga, in press). Patients practice activating adaptive beliefs in the face of tempting high-risk stimuli, since they inevitably will be confronted with such stimuli in life outside of therapy.
Homework also may involve testing drug-related beliefs to re-evaluate their validity, such as the belief that the only way to have fun is to use drugs. In the case of Mr. C., this belief was re-evaluated by getting him to try alternative, nondrug, pleasure-seeking activities.
Homework is assigned at the end of each session and is reviewed at the beginning of each following session. Initially, homework is quite structured. For example, many new patients are instructed to complete DTRs on a daily basis. Later, however, homework can be less formal and more creative as the patient demonstrates skill in applying adaptive patterns of thinking and action.
SUMMARY
In this chapter, the authors assert that drug-related beliefs are an important factor in drug abuse and its treatment.
Three types of acute drug-related beliefs have been described that contribute to urges, cravings, and ultimate use of drugs: anticipatory beliefs, relief-oriented beliefs, and permissive beliefs, and various ways have been described to assess more general, long-term beliefs pertinent to drug use.
The role of the cognitive therapist is to assess, examine, and test these beliefs with the patient in order to ultimately develop more adaptive beliefs.
The active application of skills and homework that tap into the patient’s adaptive beliefs helps the patient to become and remain drug-free.
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AUTHORS
Fred D. Wright, Ed.D. Assistant Professor of Counseling Psychology in Psychiatry University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine and Director of Education
Aaron T. Beck, M.D. University Professor Emeritus of Psychiatry University of Pennsylvania and Director
Cory F. Newman, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Psychology in Psychiatry University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine and Clinical Director Center for Cognitive Therapy Room 754, The Science Center 3600 Market Street Philadelphia, PA 19104-2648
Bruce S. Liese, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Family Practice and Director of Behavioral Medicine Department of Family Practice University of Kansas Medical Center 39th and Rainbow Boulevard Kansas City, KS 66103
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From NIDA Research Monograph 137 Behavioral Treatments for Drug Abuse and Dependence [pdf with multiple chapters, diagrams]